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Chapter 1: Chemical Equilibrium
Reversible Reactions
Chemical reactions that can proceed in both forward and backward directions are called reversible reactions.
N₂(g) + 3H₂(g) ⇌ 2NH₃(g)
Law of Mass Action
At a given temperature, the rate of a chemical reaction is directly proportional to the product of molar concentrations of reactants.
Equilibrium Constant (Kc)
Kc = [Products] / [Reactants]
For: aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD
Kc = [C]^c [D]^d / [A]^a [B]^b
Le Chatelier's Principle
"If a system at equilibrium is disturbed, the system shifts to counteract the disturbance."
Effects on Equilibrium
- Increase Temperature: Shifts toward endothermic direction
- Decrease Temperature: Shifts toward exothermic direction
- Increase Pressure: Shifts toward side with fewer gas molecules
- Add Catalyst: Increases rate both directions equally
Chapter 2: Acids, Bases, and Salts
Acids
Substances that donate H⁺ ions (protons) in aqueous solution.
- Strong Acids: HCl, HBr, HI, HNO₃, H₂SO₄, HClO₄
- Weak Acids: CH₃COOH, H₂CO₃, H₃PO₄
Bases
Substances that accept H⁺ ions or donate OH⁻ ions.
- Strong Bases: NaOH, KOH, Ca(OH)₂
- Weak Bases: NH₃, Mg(OH)₂
pH Scale
pH = -log[H⁺]
pH + pOH = 14
- pH < 7: Acidic
- pH = 7: Neutral
- pH > 7: Basic
Neutralization Reaction
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O
Salts
ionic compounds formed from neutralization of acid and base.
- Normal Salts: NaCl, K₂SO₄
- Acid Salts: NaHSO₄, NaHCO₃
- Basic Salts: Mg(OH)Cl
Important Salts
- Sodium Chloride (NaCl): Common salt, table salt
- Sodium Carbonate (Na₂CO₃): Washing soda
- Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO₃): Baking soda
- Calcium Carbonate (CaCO₃): Limestone, marble
- Copper Sulfate (CuSO₄): Blue vitriol
Chapter 3: Organic Chemistry
Introduction to Organic Chemistry
Study of carbon compounds. Carbon forms millions of compounds due to:
- Catenation: Ability to form chains with itself
- Tetravalency: Four valence electrons
- Multiple bonding: Double and triple bonds
Hydrocarbons
Compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen.
Alkanes (Saturated)
Single bonds only (C-C).
CH₄ (Methane), C₂H₆ (Ethane), C₃H₈ (Propane), C₄H₁₀ (Butane)
General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₊₂
Alkenes (Unsaturated)
At least one double bond (C=C).
C₂H₄ (Ethene), C₃H₆ (Propene)
General formula: CₙH₂ₙ
Alkynes (Unsaturated)
At least one triple bond (C≡C).
C₂H₂ (Ethyne/Acetylene), C₃H₄ (Propyne)
General formula: CₙH₂ₙ₋₂
Functional Groups
- -OH: Alcohol (e.g., Ethanol)
- -CHO: Aldehyde (e.g., Formaldehyde)
- -COOH: Carboxylic Acid (e.g., Acetic Acid)
- -NH₂: Amine (e.g., Methylamine)
Important Organic Compounds
- Methanol (CH₃OH): Wood alcohol, fuel
- Ethanol (C₂H₅OH): Alcohol, sanitizer
- Acetic Acid (CH₃COOH): Vinegar
- Glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆): Simple sugar
Chapter 4: Chemical Industries
Nitrogen Fertilizers
Nitrogen is essential for plant growth. Main fertilizers:
- Urea: (NH₂)₂CO - 46% nitrogen
- Ammonium Nitrate: NH₄NO₃
- Ammonium Sulfate: (NH₄)₂SO₄
Haber Process
N₂(g) + 3H₂(g) ⇌ 2NH₃(g) + Heat
Conditions: 400-500°C, 200-300 atm, Iron catalyst
Sulfuric Acid Industry
Contact Process for H₂SO₄:
S + O₂ → SO₂
2SO₂ + O₂ → 2SO₃
SO₃ + H₂O → H₂SO₄
Chlor-Alkali Industry
2NaCl + 2H₂O → 2NaOH + Cl₂ + H₂
(Electrolysis of brine)
- NaOH: Soap, paper, detergents
- Cl₂: PVC, bleach
- H₂: Ammonia, fuels
Chapter 5: Atmosphere and Water
Composition of Atmosphere
- Nitrogen (N₂): 78%
- Oxygen (O₂): 21%
- Argon (Ar): 0.93%
- Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): 0.04%
- Other gases: Neon, Helium, Methane, etc.
Air Pollution
- CO: Carbon monoxide - vehicle exhaust
- SO₂: Sulfur dioxide - industrial emissions
- NOₓ: Nitrogen oxides - vehicle emissions
- Particulates: Dust, smoke
Greenhouse Effect
Trapping of infrared radiation by gases like CO₂, CH₄, H₂O vapor.
Water Pollution
- Industrial waste: Heavy metals, chemicals
- Agricultural runoff: Pesticides, fertilizers
- Sewage: Organic matter, pathogens
Water Treatment
- Coagulation: Add alum to remove suspended particles
- Filtration: Remove remaining particles
- Chlorination: Kill bacteria
- Fluoridation: Add fluoride for dental health
Chapter 6: Environmental Chemistry
Green Chemistry
Design of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate use and generation of hazardous substances.
Ozone Layer Depletion
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) break down ozone molecules.
CFCl₃ + UV → •Cl + •CFCl₂
•Cl + O₃ → •ClO + O₂
Acid Rain
Formation of acids from SO₂ and NO₄ in atmosphere.
SO₂ + H₂O → H₂SO₃
2NO₂ + H₂O → HNO₂ + HNO₃
E-Waste
Electronic waste containing toxic materials like lead, mercury, cadmium.
Sustainable Development
Meeting present needs without compromising future generations' needs.
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